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Practical ecological knowledge for the temperate reader. |
Family: Juncaginaceae (Arrow-grass family)[E-flora]
"Plant ± glabrous. Leaf: basal, ± tufted; sheath membranous; ligule tip entire to 2-lobed [0]. Flower: perianth parts generally adaxially concave; anthers ± sessile; stigma papillate or ± plumose. Fruit: achene or generally 3, 6 mericarps. Seed: 1, linear, ± flat or angled.
± 20 species: temperate, circumboreal, Australia, southern Africa, South America. (Greek: 3 points, from fruits of some) TOXIC when fresh, from cyanogenic compounds.:" [Jepson]
"Nater ribbons grow in most freshwater situations, including muddy outback billabongs, soaks behind beaches, seasonally flooded hollows, sluggish rivers, swamps, and fast-flowing streams. They flourish in water up to 2 m deep, but also sprout in wet mud and on sandbanks." [Low WFP]
"Triglochin has some fifteen species world- wide; these range from Arctic waters to brack- ish marshes of Africa and Australia." [Schofield]
1. Fertile ovaries 3; fruits linear to slenderly club-shaped.................Triglochin palustris
1. Fertile ovaries 6, fruits oblong to egg-shaped
2. Ligules entire or nearly so, (1) 1.5-5 mm long; leaf blades somewhat compressed; plants (10) 30-100 (120) cm tall...........................Triglochin maritima
2. Ligules 2-lobed, 0.5-1 mm long; leaf blades more or less cylindric; plants 5-15 (30) cem tall.....................Triglochin concinna [IFBC-E-flora]
Species Mentioned: "In the past, all tuberous water ribbons were classified as T. procerum (or T. procera), but eight species are now recognised. It is likely that all are edible, although only T. procerum of south-eastern Australia and T. dubium of northern and eastern Australia are recorded as Aboriginal foods." [Low WFP] ARROW GRASS (Triglochin species) - T. maritimum, T. palustris, T. concinna and T. striata [Schofield]
"Both species contain hydrocyanic acid, a poison most concentrated in the green leaves. The compound is likely to occur in other Pacific Northwest arrow grasses such as T. concinna (ranging from British Columbia to California) and T. striata (a California species)." [Schofield]
"Cyanogene glycosides, dhurrin and triglochinin occur in Papaver and Eschscholzia, but these compounds can also be found in some allied taxa." [Bernath Papaver]
"Aromatic cyanogenic glycosides, such as dhurrin..., taxiphyllin... and triglochinin, require tissue disruption by chewing herbivores for their activation by β-glycosidases to form the aglycone insect deterrents and the rapidly acting poison hydrogen cyanide [80, 115, 116]." [Jetter FSAP]
Lookalikes: "The greatest danger to foragers is in mistaking beach arrow grass leaves for goosetongue. Note that arrow grass leaves are flat on one side and round on the other, with grasslike sheaths at the base. Goosetongue leaves have prominent ribs and have a flattened to V-shaped cross-section." [Schofield]
| Seeds |
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"Late summer: seeds. Parch or roast before eating.... the Haida can it for winter use." [Schofield]
"When roasted, the seeds were used by early western pioneers as a substitute for coffee." [Schofield]
| Tubers |
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"Spring: the white base of the young leaves." [Schofield]
Triglochin procera R. Br. - Water Ribbons - Bullet-shaped tubers used as food [EMNMPV.9]
"Aborigines had their own baby foods, and water ribbons was one of these. On Groote Eylandt the bland starchy tubers were roasted, pounded and fed to teething babies and the elderly. The raw or roasted tubers were also eaten by adults, and were probably an important staple food throughout much of Australia. Up to 200 tubers are borne by a single plant." [Low WFP]
General:
"Aquatic perennial herb from a rhizome; stems 5-20 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
Leaves:
"All basal, tufted, linear, 5-20 cm long, 0.5-1.5 mm wide, more or less cylindric; ligules 2-lobed, 0.5-1 mm long." [IFBC-E-flora]
Flowers:
"Inflorescence elongated and leafless, usually shorter than the leaves with 5 to 20, short-stalked flowers; perianth parts usually 6, about 1.5 mm long; stamens usually 6; fertile ovaries 6." [IFBC-E-flora]
Fruits:
"Dry, oblong to egg-shaped, 4-5 mm long, splitting into 6 carpels at maturity; seeds 1 per carpel, more or less angled." [IFBC-E-flora]
Notes:
T. concinna is treated separately from T. maritima in this manual since they are distinct in our region. Some taxonomists, e.g., Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2000), have merged them since they are difficult to separate over much of their range.
"Triglochin maritima is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.6 m (2ft). It is hardy to zone (UK) 5. It is in flower from Jul to September, and the seeds ripen from Aug to October. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very alkaline and saline soils.
It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers wet soil and can grow in water. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure." [PFAF]
General:
"Aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial herb from a rhizome; stems (10) 30-100 (120) cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
Leaves:
"All basal, tufted, linear, 20-70 cm long, 1.5-2.5 (4) mm wide, flat; ligules entire or nearly so, 1-5 mm long." [IFBC-E-flora] "When crushed, they have a distinct “marshy” odour." [Majak SPPWC]
Flowers:
"Inflorescence elongated and leafless, usually longer than the leaves with many, short-stalked flowers; perianth parts usually 6, about 2 mm long; stamens usually 6; fertile ovaries 6." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Fruits:
Dry, oblong to egg-shaped, 3-5 (7) mm long, splitting into 6 carpels at maturity; seeds 1 per carpel, more or less angled." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Habitat / Range Tidal marshes, saline and alkaline ponds, fens and wet meadows in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; frequent throughout BC south of 55degreeN, less frequent northward; cosmopolitan, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to NH, PA, OH, IL, OK, NM, AZ, CA and MX; Eurasia, N Africa, S America." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Salt marshes and grassy places near the sea[9, 17]. Europe, including Britain, from the Arctic south and east to N. Africa, W. and N. Asia. N. America." [PFAF] "Brackish coastal habitats and inland bogs. Circumboreal, south in North America to MD, DE, OH, NE, NM, Mexico; also Patagonia. [= F, FNA, G, K; = T. maritimum – C, Z, orthographic variant]" [Weakley FSMAS] "Tidal marshes and mudflats. brackish meadows, sloughs; at low elevations, common the length of our region." [PCBC2004]
"Notes:: Marsh arrow-grass (T. palustre) and slender arrow- grass (T. concinnum) are both uncommon inhabitants of saline or brackish marshes and meadows along our coast. Both are usually smaller (less than 30 em tall) than sea arrow-grass and have narrower, more-rounded leaves; slender arrow-grass has fruits similar to those of sea arrow-grass. but marsh arrow-grass has club-shaped fruits that split into only 3 segments." [PCBC2004]
Origin Status: Native [E-flora]"The green leaves of plants can contain a toxic cyanogenic glycoside, it is especially present during and just after a drought and is particularly toxic to ruminants[76, 85]. Plants growing in Britain are usually perfectly safe, this is probably due to the climate[76]." [PFAF]
"The plants, especially in times of drought, often contain toxic quantities of hydrocyanic acid and have caused much death in livestock. The seeds are rendered safe by parching or roasting since the poison is quite volatile." [Kirk WEP]
"After heavy grazing, its stubble can be difficult to distinguish from that of the slender members of the rush genus (Juncus) which has cylindrical stems." [Majak SPPWC]
"As with saskatoon and chokecherry, arrowgrass is one of a group of cyanogenic plants. The cyanogenic glycoside in seaside arrowgrass is triglochinin; the highest concentration is found in new growth of leaves and flower spikes in spring (48). Fresh arrowgrass plants can contain as much as 3% triglochinin which is equivalent to 0.22% hydrogen cyanide on a dry matter basis. In short, 3.5 kg fresh arrowgrass can be lethal if consumed by a 500-kg animal. Poisoning usually occurs too rapidly for treatment under pasture or range conditions. Intraperitoneal injection of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate is the classical treatment for cyanide poisoning." [Majak SPPWC]
Livestock Poisoning: "Arrow-grass contains cyanide-producing glycosides, and is known to be poisonous, sometimes fatally, to grazing livestock (cf. Kingsbury, 1964). Apparently the young leaf bases in springtime contain minimal amounts of the toxic compounds, because Indigenous People consulted were not aware of the plant's potential toxicity. The mature leaves and flower stalks should never be eaten." [Turner, Kuhnlein] "Hydrocyanic acid is produced by both the fresh and the dried plant parts; hence it is both dangerous when grazed or when fed in the form of hay." Harrington
"Moreover, Snow (212) and Uphof (240) stated that the leaves are used as a salad or cooked as a potherb in some localities. We have never tried the plant as food nor do we advise doing so even in an emergency." [Harrington]
| Leaf bases |
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"The white base of the leaf stem can be eaten raw or cooked[46, 61, 85, 103]. Best harvested in late spring, the white base has a pleasant mild sweet taste, somewhat like cucumber[256]. An unpleasant odour is produced whilst the plant is being cooked[74]. The green parts of the plant should not be eaten since they can contain a toxin[172]. Only the bases of leaf stems should be used, and not the bases of flowering stems[256]. See notes at top of the page." [PFAF]
"Young leaf bases of vegetative plants (Note: may be toxic)" [TurnerDavis]
"The fleshy, succulent, whitish leaf bases of this grass-like plant were relished as a springtime vegetable by peoples of several Coast Salish groups of British Columbia, including Mainland Comox, Sechelt, Squamish, and Straits (Turner, 1975), as well as by the Kaigani Haida and Tlingit of Alaska (Norton, 1981; Jacobs and Jacobs, 1982). The leaf bases were usually collected around April or May, from the inner leaves of the basal cluster. Most people preferred the leaf bases of the vegetative, or non-flowering plants, which were called the "female" plants. Eating the bases of the "male" (flowering) plant was believe by some to cause headaches (Turner, 1975), but other people ate the inner parts of both (R. Bouchard pers. comm., 1977, 1978)." [Turner, Kuhnlein]
"Formerly, the fleshy, white leaf bases were boiled and eaten alone or used in soups and stews. The water in which the bases were boiled was changed at least 3 times. Until quite recently this plant was gathered in quantity and "jarred" for winter use." [Norton KaigHaida]
"The young white leaf bases were collected around April or May from the inner leaves of the basal cluster. These leaf bases, when eaten raw at the right stage, have a mild, sweet, cucumber-like taste. They are generally better if cooked. In spring- time, the leaf bases contain few toxic compounds, whereas the mature leaves and flower stalks should never be eaten." [Vizgirdas WPSN]
| Seeds |
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"Seed - parched and ground into a powder[85, 105, 161, 172, 257]. The roasted seed is a coffee substitute[161, 172, 212]." [PFAF]
"The seeds were parched and ground into flour by several western Indian groups. When roasted, the seeds were used by early western pioneers as a substitute for coffee." [Kirk WEP]
| Potassium |
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"The ashes of the plant are rich in potassium and can be used in making soap[74]." [PFAF]
| Fodder |
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"This plant absorbs large amounts of salts from the soil, which can make it attractive to cattle, particularly when they are lacking salt. Triglochinin levels in arrowgrass are higher on non-saline sites than on saline sites. When cattle are moved to a new pasture they may be hungry, thirsty, and craving salt. This plant may be available at watering sites. Toxin levels in leaves can be substantially elevated during severe moisture stress (48). Furthermore, late in the season drought may reduce supplies of other forage, thus increasing consumption of arrowgrass. When made into hay, the plant gradually loses its toxicity during storage. " [Majak SPPWC]
"It has also been established, that all aerial parts of the plant are cyanogenic, the largest accumulation of the cyanogen being in flowers and unripe fruits." [Eyjolfsson,1970]
"... the (R)-enantiomer of dhurrin (called taxiphyllin) is found in arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima; Juncaginaceae) and several species of bamboo." [MNP Dewick]
"Seed - we have no information for this species but suggest sowing the seed in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe if this is possible. Stand the pots in about 2cm of water. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in the summer. Division in spring[200]. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring." [PFAF]
"Succeeds in shallow water or a bog garden[200]. Possibly requires saline conditions[K]." [PFAF]
"Triglochin maritimum is characterized as only occasionally mycorrhizal (Harley, Harley 1987)." [Druva-Lusite,2010]
"similar to Spergularia salina, mycorrhizal intensity in roots of Triglochin maritimum increased up to 30% in conditions of decreased soil salinity (Druva-Lusite et al., unpublished data). Moreover, intensity of arbuscule distribution in root fragments increased up to 24% at the end of the vegetation season." [Druva-Lusite,2010]
"The lack of mycorrhiza in Triglochin maritima (with an aerenchyma system developed) can possibly be ascribed to resistance of fun- gal infection, based on the presence of the toxic cyanogenic glucosides and sul- phurous substances (cf. BOULLARD 1964)." [Rozema,1986]
"These relations can be illustrated by quantification of spring grazing, taking as our example Brent (Branta bernicla) on the saltmarshes of the Wadden Sea islands. The nominate or dark-bellied form B. bernicla bernicla has a high-arctic breeding range along the coastline of Siberia, and virtually the entire population stages in the Wadden Sea of Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands from the latter part of March through to the end of May when they migrate to the breeding grounds (Ebbinge et al., 1981). Of vital importance at this time of year are the saltmarshes of the Wadden where early spring growth of Festuca rubra, Puccinellia maritima, Plantago maritima and Triglochin maritima is the staple food." [Werger DG]
"Triglochin palustris is a PERENNIAL growing to 0.5 m (1ft 8in). It is hardy to zone (UK) 5. It is in flower from Jun to August. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Wind.
Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in saline soils.
It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers wet soil and can grow in water." [PFAF]
General:
"Aquatic perennial herb from a rhizome; stems 15-60 cm tall." [IFBC-E-flora]
Leaves:
"All basal, tufted, linear, 10-30 (40) cm long, 0.5-2 mm wide, flat; ligules usually 2-lobed, 0.5-1.5 mm long." [IFBC-E-flora]
Flowers:
"Inflorescence elongated and leafless, usually longer than the leaves with many, short-stalked flowers; perianth parts usually 6, 1.5-2 mm long; stamens usually 6; fertile ovaries 3." [IFBC-E-flora]
Fruits:
"Dry, linear to slenderly club-shaped, 6-7 (9) mm long, splitting into 3 carpels at maturity; seeds 1 per carpel, more or less angled." [IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat / Range "Tidal marshes, saline and alkaline ponds, wet meadows and fens in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; common in BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains and S of 55degreeN, less frequent northward and along the coast; cosmopolitan, N to AK, YT and NT, E to NF and S to ME, NY, OH, IA, NE, NM, UT, NV and CA; Greenland, Eurasia, S America." [IFBC-E-flora]
"Marshes, usually amongst tall grass[17]." [PFAF] "Europe, including Britain, from the Arctic south and east to N. Africa, northern Asia. N. America." [PFAF]
Origin Status: Native [E-flora]
"Marsh arrowgrass (Triglochinin palustris L.) also contains triglochinin. Very similar to seaside arrowgrass, it is a much smaller plant, up to 60 cm tall in contrast to 120 cm for seaside arrowgrass, and often occurs in smaller clumps. Its leaves have sharp-pointed tips (compared to blunt tips), and its seed pods are slender (compared to ovoid pods). Although not as common as seaside arrowgrass, it is as widely distributed in Western Canada. The species is also found elsewhere in North America and in Europe. Reports from these areas consider it as dangerous as seaside arrowgrass." [Majak SPPWC]
"The green leaves of plants can contain a toxic cyanogenic glycoside, it is especially present during and just after a drought and is particularly toxic to ruminants [172]. Plants growing in Britain are usually perfectly safe, this is probably due to the climate[76]." [PFAF]
| Leaf-Bases |
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"The white base of the leaf stem can be eaten raw or cooked[172]. An unpleasant odour is produced in the cooking process but the flavour of the stems is sweet[172]. The green parts of the plant should not be eaten since they can contain a toxin. See notes ." [PFAF]
| Seed |
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"Seed - parched and ground into a powder[172]. The roasted seed is a coffee substitute[172]." [PFAF] "Eaten as bread after making of its flour" [Pullaiah EOI]
"Seed - we have no information for this species but suggest sowing the seed in a cold frame as soon as it is ripe if this is possible. Stand the pots in about 2cm of water. When they are large enough to handle, prick the seedlings out into individual pots and plant them out in the summer. Division in spring[200]. Larger divisions can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. We have found that it is best to pot up smaller divisions and grow them on in light shade in a greenhouse or cold frame until they are growing away well. Plant them out in the summer or the following spring." [PFAF]
"Succeeds in shallow water or a bog garden[200]. This plant does not seem to require high salt levels for its survival[200]." [PFAF]
Triglochin dubia: "The widespread T. dubia is the most drought tolerant, found from central Victoria to New Guinea. I have lifted root balls of this species from a floodplain in northern Victoria where they had been completely dormant for six years, and they were putting out new leaves within two days of being placed in water. The Northern Territory version of this species is markedly different in appearance, and survives in an even wider range of conditions from 2 metres deep in running waters during the wet season to baking-hot, bone-dry creek beds for months before the rains return." [Romanowski PWAD]
Triglochin procera - Water Ribbons
Habitat/Range: "Lakes, swamps and streams, sometimes in deeper waters[154, 265]." [PFAF] "Australia - all areas, including Tasmania." [PFAF]
"Tuber - baked[144, 177]. Fruit - raw or cooked. A pleasant, pea-like flavour[144]." [PFAF]
"Cooked and mashed, the corms of the Water Ribbon or Creek Lily (Triglochin procera) are suitable for young children (5–6 months old) (Levitt 1981)." [Cheryll_Williams]
"Triglochin striata, the three-ribbed or streaked arrowgrass, is common in less well drained depressions on the saltmarsh plain. The leaves are erect, often in groups of three, and may be up to 30 cm long, though more commonly less than 10 cm. The plant is widely distributed, both in Australia and in other southern continents." [Saintilan ASE] "Brackish to nearly freshwater marshes. May-October. The species has an extensive range, occurring in tropical Central and South America, Africa, and Australia; in North America, it ranges from MD and DE south to s. FL and west to LA, and also on the west coast in CA and OR. [= F, FNA, G, K, WH; = T. striatum – RAB, C, GW, S, Z, orthographic variant]" [Weakley FSMAS]
"The most conspicuous and ecologically important Triglochin species are the eight known as water ribbons (subgenus Cycnogeton), although until fairly recently these had been lumped together under one name: T. procera (see Colour Plate 32b). The widespread plant of south-eastern Australia still known by this name is perhaps the most salt tolerant of the Cycnogeton group, flourishing even in the upper tidal reaches of estuaries. It is also still the most variable of the group as presently defined, including two or perhaps three distinct forms that may later be regarded as species in their own right." [Romanowski PWAD]
"These larger, strap-leaved plants are common in a wide range of deep to shallow wetlands, or even in moving water, from Perth to Sydney, then northwards along the east coast to New Guinea and the Northern Territory. Regardless of species or form, the group as a whole provides food in the form of leaves, seeds and tubers, as well as shelter both above and below water for many animals from invertebrates to waterbirds. Their sweet, starchy tubers are edible and the best of our wetland bush-tucker foods, although those of T. microtuberosa are too small to be worth harvesting. Tuber size varies even between populations of any one species, and selected forms could perhaps be hybridised to give larger crops." [Romanowski PWAD]
"Ribeiro and co-workers (2011) found that Juncus maritimus, Triglochin striata, and Phragmites australis exhibited consis- tent differences in the levels of hydrocarbon degraders. However, all the plants presented higher levels of those microorganisms in their rhizosediment than in the bulk sediment, confirming that microbial colonization of salt marsh sediments was promoted by salt marsh plants which, combined with plants’ ability to accumulate hydrocarbons, can enhance the removal and degradation of those pollutants." [Gupta HMSP]
"Unless the soil used for propagating, and that of the wetland to be planted are similar, bare-rooted planting may also improve survival of the plants. For example, Triglochin lineare and T. alcockiae frequently grow in relatively ephemeral pools with a clay substrate. If planted as tubestock, the pocket dug into the clay for the plant effectively traps it in a cup which refills relatively slowly from the surrounding clay, and it may dry out before the roots penetrate the surrounding clay. By contrast, a bare-rooted seedling can be planted by opening a wedge-shaped hole with a narrow shovel in a second or two, and the clay is then pressed back around the roots with direct, immediate contact between the plant and the soil." [Romanowski PWAD]
"All tuberous Triglochin are very drought tolerant once established, and absorb nutrients like a sponge so they are excellent for water treatment. The underground tubers are formed as water levels fall, and carry the plant through dry periods." [Romanowski PWAD]
"Larger plants resent disturbance and take some time to recover from being lifted and divided. Fortunately, propagation is easy from fresh seed sown on waterlogged soil or into clear, shallow water. The seed is ready to harvest when it comes off readily in the hand, except in T. rheophilum in which seeds may germinate while still attached to the flower stalk, an adaptation to the fast moving waters it is found in. As seed is greedily eaten by many waterbirds it may need to be collected a few days before this stage, but will ripen, then sink and germinate if floated for a month or two in clear, shallow water." [Romanowski PWAD]
"Zedler et al. (1995) observed an abundance of the plant Triglochin striatum in a temperate Australian saltmarsh subjected to cattle grazing and hypothesised that unvegetated marsh areas and waterlogged conditions due to cattle hoofprints created a favourable environment for this species." [Saintilan ASE]